Cicero centers virtus as the Roman ideal combining courage, moral integrity, and civic responsibility as the ethical foundation for political leadership and civic life.
Ancient Greek distinction between general excellence (arete) and specific courage (andreia) was lost in Latin translation (virtus), undermining recognition of non-rational virtues like spirited resistance.
How a Roman Philosopher Changed What "Virtue" Means
Virtue originally meant active excellence (Greek arete) but shifted toward manliness (Latin virtus), reshaping Western views of character and moral life.